Abstract-Terahertz Nanoimaging and Nanospectroscopy of Chalcogenide Phase-Change Materials

Chao Chen, Shu Chen, Ricardo P.S.M. Lobo, Carlos Maciel-Escudero, Martin Lewin, Thomas Taubner, Wei Xiong, Ming Xu, Xinliang Zhang, Xiangshui Miao, Peining Li,  Rainer Hillenbrand

https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsphotonics.0c01541

 Chalcogenide phase-change materials (PCMs) exhibit optical phonons at terahertz (THz) frequencies, which can be used for studying basic properties of the phase transition and which lead to a strong dielectric contrast that could be exploited for THz photonics applications. Here, we demonstrate that the phonons of PCMs can be studied by frequency-tunable THz scattering-type scanning near-field optical microscopy (s-SNOM). Specifically, we perform spectroscopic THz nanoimaging of a PCM sample comprising amorphous and crystalline phases. We observe phonon signatures, yielding strong s-SNOM signals and, most important, clear spectral differences between the amorphous and crystalline PCM, which allows for distinguishing the PCM phases with high confidence on the nanoscale. We also found that the spectral signature can be enhanced, regarding both signal strength and spectral contrast, by increasing the radius of the probing tip. From a general perspective, our results establish THz s-SNOM for nanoscale structural and chemical mapping based on local phonon spectroscopy.

Abstract-Fast and Sensitive Terahertz Detection Using an Antenna-Integrated Graphene pn Junction

Sebastián Castilla, Sebastián Castilla, Bernat Terrés, Marta Autore, Leonardo Viti, Jian Li, Alexey Y. Nikitin, Ioannis,  Vangelidis,  Kenji Watanabe,  Takashi Taniguchi, Elefterios Lidorikis, Miriam S. Vitiello, Rainer Hillenbrand, Klaas-Jan Tielrooij, Frank Koppens.

https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.nanolett.8b04171

Although the detection of light at terahertz (THz) frequencies is important for a large range of applications, current detectors typically have several disadvantages in terms of sensitivity, speed, operating temperature, and spectral range. Here, we use graphene as a photoactive material to overcome all of these limitations in one device. We introduce a novel detector for terahertz radiation that exploits the photothermoelectric (PTE) effect, based on a design that employs a dual-gated, dipolar antenna with a gap of ∼100 nm. This narrow-gap antenna simultaneously creates a pn junction in a graphene channel located above the antenna and strongly concentrates the incoming radiation at this pn junction, where the photoresponse is created. We demonstrate that this novel detector has an excellent sensitivity, with a noise-equivalent power of 80 pW/ at room temperature, a response time below 30 ns (setup-limited), a high dynamic range (linear power dependence over more than 3 orders of magnitude) and broadband operation (measured range 1.8–4.2 THz, antenna-limited), which fulfills a combination that is currently missing in the state-of-the-art detectors. Importantly, on the basis of the agreement we obtained between experiment, analytical model, and numerical simulations, we have reached a solid understanding of how the PTE effect gives rise to a THz-induced photoresponse, which is very valuable for further detector optimization.

Abstract-Fast and Sensitive Terahertz Detection Using an Antenna-Integrated Graphene pn Junction

Sebastián Castilla, Bernat Terrés, Marta Autore, Leonardo Viti, Jian Li, Alexey Y. Nikitin, Ioannis Vangelidis, Kenji Watanabe, Takashi Taniguchi, Elefterios Lidorikis, Miriam S. Vitiello, Rainer Hillenbrand, Klaas-Jan Tielrooij, Frank H.L. Koppens

https://arxiv.org/abs/1905.01881

Although the detection of light at terahertz (THz) frequencies is important for a large range of applications, current detectors typically have several disadvantages in terms of sensitivity, speed, operating temperature, and spectral range. Here, we use graphene as a photoactive material to overcome all of these limitations in one device. We introduce a novel detector for terahertz radiation that exploits the photothermoelectric (PTE) effect, based on a design that employs a dual-gated, dipolar antenna with a gap of 100 nm. This narrow-gap antenna simultaneously creates a pn junction in a graphene channel located above the antenna and strongly concentrates the incoming radiation at this pn junction, where the photoresponse is created. We demonstrate that this novel detector has an excellent sensitivity, with a noise-equivalent power of 80 pW-per-square-root-Hz at room temperature, a response time below 30 ns (setup-limited), a high dynamic range (linear power dependence over more than 3 orders of magnitude) and broadband operation (measured range 1.8-4.2 THz, antenna-limited), which fulfills a combination that is currently missing in the state-of-the-art detectors. Importantly, on the basis of the agreement we obtained between experiment, analytical model, and numerical simulations, we have reached a solid understanding of how the PTE effect gives rise to a THz-induced photoresponse, which is very valuable for further detector optimization.

Abstract-Fast and sensitive terahertz detection using an antenna-integrated graphene pn-junction

Sebastian Castilla, Bernat Terres, Marta Autore, Leonardo Viti, Jian Li, Alexey Nikitin, Ioannis Vangelidis, Kenji Watanabe, Takashi Taniguchi, Elefterios Lidorikis, Miriam Serena Vitiello, Rainer Hillenbrand, Klaas-Jan Tielrooij, and Frank H.L. Koppens


https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.nanolett.8b04171

Although the detection of light at terahertz (THz) frequencies is important for a large range of applications, current detectors typically have several disadvantages in terms of sensitivity, speed, operating temperature, and spectral range. Here, we use graphene as photoactive material to overcome all of these limitations in one device. We introduce a novel detector for terahertz radiation that exploits the photo-thermoelectric effect, based on a design that employs a dual-gated, dipolar antenna with a gap of ~100 nm. This narrow-gap antenna simultaneously creates a pn-junction in a graphene channel located above the antenna, and strongly concentrates the incoming radiation at this pn-junction, where the photoresponse is created. We demonstrate that this novel detector has excellent sensitivity, with a noise-equivalent power of 80 pW/√Hz at room temperature, a response time below 30 ns (setup-limited), a high dynamic range (linear power dependence over more than 3 orders of magnitude) and broadband operation (measured range 1.8 - 4.2 THz, antenna-limited), which fulfils a combination that is currently missing in the state of the art. Importantly, based on the agreement we obtain between experiment, analytical model, and numerical simulations, we have reached a solid understanding of how the PTE eect gives rise to a THz-induced photoresponse, which is very valuable for further detector optimization.

Abstract-All-electronic terahertz nanoscopy

Clemens Liewald, Stefan Mastel, Jeffrey Hesler, Andreas J. Huber, Rainer Hillenbrand, and Fritz Keilmann

https://www.osapublishing.org/optica/abstract.cfm?uri=optica-5-2-159&origin=search

Probing conductivity in a contactless way with nanoscale resolution is a pressing demand in such active fields as quantum materials, superconductivity, and molecular electronics. Here, we demonstrate a laser- and cryogen-free microwave-technology-based scattering-type scanning near-field optical microscope powered by an easily aligned free-space beam with a tunable frequency up to 0.75 THz. It uses Schottky diode components to record background-free amplitude and phase nano-images, for the first time in the terahertz range, which is uniquely sensitive for assessing conduction phenomena. Images of Si with doped nanostructures prove a conductance sensitivity corresponding to 1016  cm−3${10}^{16}{\mathrm{cm}}^{-3}$ mobile carriers, at 50 nm spatial resolution.

© 2018 Optical Society of America under the terms of the OSA Open Access Publishing Agreement

Abstract-Electrical 2π phase control of infrared light in a 350-nm footprint using graphene plasmons

• Achim Woessner,
• Yuanda Gao,
• Iacopo Torre,
• Mark B. Lundeberg,
• Cheng Tan,
• Kenji Watanabe,
• Takashi Taniguchi,
• Rainer Hillenbrand,
• James Hone,
• Marco Polini
• & Frank H. L. Koppens
• 
  

http://www.nature.com/nphoton/journal/vaop/ncurrent/full/nphoton.2017.98.html

Modulating the amplitude and phase of light is at the heart of many applications such as wavefront shaping, transformation optics, phased arrays, modulators and sensors. Performing this task with high efficiency and small footprint is a formidable challenge. Metasurfaces and plasmonics are promising, but metals exhibit weak electro-optic effects. Two-dimensional materials, such as graphene, have shown great performance as modulators with small drive voltages. Here, we show a graphene plasmonic phase modulator that is capable of tuning the phase between 0 and 2π in situ. The device length of 350 nm is more than 30 times shorter than the 10.6 μm free-space wavelength. The modulation is achieved by spatially controlling the plasmon phase velocity in a device where the spatial carrier density profile is tunable. We provide a scattering theory for plasmons propagating through spatial density profiles. This work constitutes a first step towards two-dimensional transformation optics for ultracompact modulators and biosensing.

On-chip observation of THz graphene plasmons

http://www.nanowerk.com/nanotechnology-news/newsid=44985.php (Nanowerk News) Researchers developed a technique for imaging THz photocurrents with nanoscale resolution, and applied it to visualize strongly compressed THz waves (plasmons) in a graphene photodetector. The extremely short wavelengths and highly concentrated fields of these plasmons open new venues for the development of miniaturized optoelectronic THz devices (Nature Nanotechnology, "Acoustic terahertz graphene plasmons revealed by photocurrent nanoscopy").

THz photocurrent nanoscopy of graphene plasmons in a split-gate photodetector.

Radiation in the terahertz (THz) frequency range is attracting large interest because of its manifold application potential for non-destructive imaging, next-generation wireless communication or sensing. But still, the generating, detecting and controlling of THz radiation faces numerous technological challenges. Particularly, the relatively long wavelengths (from 30 to 300 mm) of THz radiation require solutions for nanoscale integration of THz devices or for nanoscale sensing and imaging applications.

In recent years, graphene plasmonics has become a highly promising platform for shrinking THz waves. It is based on the interaction of light with collective electron oscillations in graphene, giving rise to electromagnetic waves that are called plasmons. The graphene plasmons propagate with strongly reduced wavelength and can concentrate THz fields to subwavelength-scale dimensions, while the plasmons themselves can be controlled electrically.

Now, researchers at CIC nanoGUNE (San Sebastian, Spain) in collaboration with ICFO (Barcelona, Spain), IIT (Genova, Italy) - members of the EU Graphene Flagship - Columbia University (New York, USA), Radboud University (Nijmegen, Netherlands), NIM (Tsukuba, Japan) and Neaspec (Martinsried, Germany) could visualize strongly compressed and confined THz plasmons in a room-temperature THz detector based on graphene. To see the plasmons, they recorded a nanoscale map of the photocurrent that the detector produced while a sharp metal tip was scanned across it. The tip had the function to focus the THz illumination to a spot size of about 50 nm, which is about 2000 times smaller than the illumination wavelength. This new imaging technique, named THz photocurrent nanoscopy, provides unprecedented possibilities for characterizing optoelectronic properties at THz frequencies.

The team recorded photocurrent images of the graphene detector, while it was illuminated with THz radiation of around 100 mm wavelength. The images showed photocurrent oscillations revealing that THz plasmons with a more than 50 times reduced wavelength were propagating in the device while producing a photocurrent.

“In the beginning we were quite surprised about the extremely short plasmon wavelength, as THz graphene plasmons are typically much less compressed”, says former nanoGUNE researcher Pablo Alonso, now at the University of Oviedo, and first author of the work. “We managed to solve the puzzle by theoretical studies, which showed that the plasmons couple with the metal gate below the graphene”, he continues. “This coupling leads to an additional compression of the plasmons and an extreme field confinement, which could open the door towards various detector and sensor applications”, adds Rainer Hillenbrand, Ikerbasque Research Professor and Nanooptics Group Leader at nanoGUNE who led the research. The plasmons also show a linear dispersion – that means that their energy is proportional to their momentum - which could be beneficial for information and communication technologies. The team also analysed the lifetime of the THz plasmons, which showed that the damping of THz plasmons is determined by the impurities in the graphene.

THz photocurrent nanoscopy relies on the strong photothermoelectric effect in graphene, which transforms heat generated by THz fields, including that of THz plasmons, into a current. In the future, the strong thermoelectric effect could be also applied for on-chip THz plasmon detection in graphene plasmonic circuits. The technique for THz photocurrent nanoimaging could find further application potential beyond plasmon imaging, for example, for studying the local THz optoelectronic properties of other 2D materials, classical 2D electron gases or semiconductor nanostructures.

Source: Elhuyar Fundazioa

Transmission lines for nanofocusing of infrared light

http://networkedblogs.com/gf3ZX

A joint cooperation between three research groups at nanoGUNE (Donostia – San Sebastian, Spain) reports an innovative method to focus infrared light with tapered transmission lines to nanometer-size dimensions. This device could trigger the development of novel chemical and biological sensing tools, including ultra-small infrared spectrometers and lab-on-a-chip integrated biosensors.

In conventional optical instruments, light cannot be focused to spot sizes smaller than half the wavelength because of diffraction effects. An important approach to beat this diffraction limit is based on optical antennas, their name being an allusion to their radiofrequency counterparts. They have the ability to concentrate (focus) light to tiny spots of nanometer-scale dimensions, which are orders of magnitude smaller than what conventional lenses can achieve. Tiny objects such as molecules or semiconductor nanoparticles that are placed into these so-called “hot spots” of the antenna can efficiently interact with light. Thus, optical antennas boost single molecule spectroscopy or the sensitivity of optical detectors. However, the hot spot is bound to the antenna structure, which limits flexibility in designing nanooptical circuits.

Near-field microscopy image of the tapered transmission line structure, taken at 9.3 µm wavelength. ). It shows the infrared field intensity along the transmission line, revealing the tiny infrared hot spot at the taper apex (Copyright: Martin Schnell, CIC nanoGUNE)

The experiments conducted at nanoGUNE now show that infrared light can be transported and nanofocused with miniature transmission lines, consisting of two closely spaced metal nanowires. While lenses and mirrors manipulate light in its form of a free-space propagating wave, transmission lines guide the infrared light in form of a tightly bound surface wave (“Nanofocusing of Mid-Infrared Energy with Tapered Transmission Lines “).

The researchers at nanoGUNE adapted the concept of classic transmission lines to the infrared frequency range. Transmission lines are specialized cables for carrying for example radio frequency signals. A simple form consists of two metal wires running closely in parallel, also called ladder line. This structure was widely used in former times for connecting the radio receiver or television set to the rooftop antenna. Applied at MHz frequencies, where typical wavelengths are in the range of centimeters to several meters, it is a prime example for transport of energy in waveguides of strongly subwavelength-scale diameter.

In their experiments, the researchers demonstrated that infrared light can be transported in the same way, by scaling down the size of the transmission lines to below 1 micrometer (left panel of the figure). To that end, they fabricated two metal nanowires connected to an infrared antenna. The antenna captures infrared light and converts it into a propagating surface wave traveling along the transmission line. By gradually reducing the width of the transmission line (“tapering”), the researchers demonstrate that the infrared surface wave is compressed to a tiny spot at the taper apex with a diameter of only 60 nm (see right panel of the figure). This tiny spot is 150 times smaller than the free-space wavelength, emphasizing the extreme subwavelength-scale focus achieved in the experiments. The researchers applied their recently introduced near-field microscopy technique (Schnell et al., Nano Lett. 10 3524 (2010)) to map the different electrical field components of the infrared focus with nanoscale resolution.

Nanofocusing of infrared light with transmission lines has important implications in spectroscopy and sensing applications. Connecting a transmission line to the antenna, the infrared light captured by the nanoantenna can be transported over significant distances and nanofocused in a remote place. “This opens new pathways for the development of infrared nanocircuits” says Rainer Hillenbrand leader of the Nanooptics Group at the nanoscience institute nanoGUNE. “It is amazing that the classical radiofrequency concepts still work at infrared frequencies. That is 30 THz!” adds Martin Schnell who performed the experiments.
“Near-field optical microscopy techniques urgently seek for new ways to confine light down to the nanometer scale” explains Rainer Hillenbrand. “The concept of tapered transmission lines is a promising way to do achieve this. Acting as an ultra-small torch, it conducts infrared light exactly to the spot under analysis” says Martin Schnell.

The CIC nanoGUNE Consolider, nanoGUNE in short, is the Basque nanoscience and nanotechnology research center, inaugurated in 2009 in Donostia – San Sebastián, Spain. The collaborative environment at the center has been one of the keys to the success of the idea. The fabrication of the transmission lines was carried out by members of the Nanodevices Group and the TEM Laboratory, while the infrared transport and focusing functionality was designed and verified in the Nanooptics Group. “It’s great having the tools and expertise you need in the labs right next to yours” says Hillenbrand.

Source: Nanowerk.